Archive for the ‘Design Guide’ Category

How to develop PCB boards for beginners?

Saturday, October 12th, 2024

Designing and developing printed circuit boards (PCBs) may sound complex, but it’s an exciting process that is within reach, even for beginners. With the right approach, software tools, and an understanding of the basic principles, you can create functional and efficient PCBs.

How to develop PCB boards for beginners?

Is PCB Design Difficult?

The difficulty of PCB design depends on the learning objectives and depth. ‌ If it is just the initial stage, do some simple circuit board design, then it is relatively easy. But if you want to go deep and get to expert level, in areas as diverse as pcb layout, signal integrity, electromagnetic compatibility, impedance design, and more, then you need to put in more work.

For beginners, choosing the right software and learning resources is very important. PADS from Protel, Altium Designer (AD) and Mentor Graphics are commonly used PCB design software. Protel software is simple and easy to learn, suitable for beginners to use; AD and PADS are powerful, but the operation is complex, suitable for the design of complex circuit boards.

What is the Basic Rule of PCB Design?

The key to good PCB design is layout organization. Keep the design simple, especially at the beginning. Here are a few basic rules to follow:

Control Trace Length

Controlling the length of traces means adhering to the rule of keeping traces as short as possible in PCB design to avoid unnecessary interference caused by long traces. This is especially crucial for important signal lines, such as clock signal traces, which should be placed very close to the oscillator. When driving multiple devices, the network should be determined based on specific circumstances.

Avoid Forming Self-Inductive Loops

In PCB design, it is important to pay attention to signal lines forming self-inductive loops between different layers, particularly in multilayer boards. The chances of forming self-inductive loops increase when routing signal lines between layers, and these loops can cause radiated interference.

Minimize Ground Loop Principle

The principle of minimizing ground loops is to keep the signal lines and their loops as small as possible. The smaller the loop area, the less external radiation and interference it experiences. When defining ground planes, consider the distribution of the ground plane and important signal lines to prevent issues caused by ground plane cuts.

In double-layer board designs, while leaving sufficient space for the power supply, the remaining areas should be filled with reference ground and include some necessary vias to effectively connect signals on both sides. Ground isolation should be used for key signals. For designs with higher frequencies, special attention should be paid to the signal loop problems of the ground plane, and multilayer boards are recommended.

High-Speed Signal Shielding Design

The relevant ground loop rules are also aimed at minimizing signal loop areas and are mainly used for important signals such as clock and synchronous signals. For particularly important and high-frequency signals, consider using a shielded structure design with copper coaxial cables. This means isolating the line from the ground on all sides while effectively grounding the shield layer and ensuring its connection with the ground plane.

Avoid the “Antenna Effect”

Generally, routing with one end suspended is not allowed to avoid the “antenna effect,” which reduces unnecessary interference radiation and reception; otherwise, it may lead to unpredictable results.

Chamfer Rule

PCB design should avoid sharp corners and right angles to prevent unnecessary radiation and poor manufacturing performance. The angle between all traces should be ≥135°.

Avoid Overlapping Different Power Layers

Different power layers should be spatially separated to reduce interference between them, especially between power supplies with significant voltage differences. Issues arising from overlapping power planes must be avoided, and if unavoidable, consider using an isolated ground layer.

Avoid Via Proximity to SMT Pads

If vias are not covered with a solder plug, they can easily be placed too close to SMT pads during layout. This can cause solder to flow through the via to the other side of the PCB during reflow, resulting in insufficient solder on the SMT pads and causing issues like cold solder joints. It is generally recommended to maintain a distance of more than 25 mils from the edge of the via to the SMT pad and to apply solder mask over the via.

Do Not Route Traces Wider than SMT Pads Directly into the Pads

If traces are wider than the pads, the window area of the SMT pads generally expands beyond the pad size. This means that if the solder paste on the pad is slightly insufficient during reflow, there is a risk of cold solder joints. Using traces that are slightly larger or slightly smaller than the pads can also help avoid excessive heat dissipation during soldering.

Do Not Place Components Too Close to the Board Edge

During the assembly and soldering stages of the PCB, the board will be transported through various processing areas, such as solder paste application and pick-and-place machines, followed by reflow soldering. Therefore, when designing the PCB, at least one side must leave enough space for a processing margin of at least 3 mm in width and 50 mm in length. There should be no interference between components and leads within the processing margin, as this could affect the normal transport of the PCB.

If the layout cannot accommodate this, consider adding an independent 3 mm processing margin or panel. (Note: SMT components cannot be placed within 5 mm of the edge on either side of the processing panel to facilitate reflow soldering.) If the components on your PCB are hand-soldered, you can disregard this requirement.

Keep Solder Mask Window Sizes Consistent

The solder mask layer needs openings for the pads. These openings prevent the solder mask from covering the pad area, protecting the PCB circuit from oxidation and short circuits during soldering. Typically, a solder mask layer covers the outer layers of the PCB. Common solder masks are green (though black, red, yellow, and blue are also used).

Solder should not be applied to pads to avoid solder paste sticking. To avoid the solder mask layer interfering with pad solderability due to process tolerances, it is common to design a solder mask opening that is larger than the pad by approximately 0.1 mm (4 mil). However, it is also acceptable to keep the solder mask opening area the same size as the pad dimensions; the factory will process it uniformly for you.

Reduce EMI Interference

Every PCB can be affected by EMI or become a source of interference. As part of the engineering design, special attention is required during PCB layout:

Increase the spacing between high-frequency traces and low-frequency or analog traces.
Minimize the return path for high-speed signals and ensure they do not cross split planes. Smaller current loops reduce EMI radiation intensity.
High-speed differential signals should be routed in parallel and have equal lengths; otherwise, they will offset the noise suppression characteristics of the differential pair.
Avoid using vias on high-speed traces, as they may lead to EMI emissions.

What Files Are Needed to Manufacture a PCB?

When you’re ready to manufacture your PCB, you will need to generate specific files for the fabrication process. The most common file format used by PCB manufacturers is the Gerber file. Here are some other important files that needed to submitted to manufacturer:

1. Gerber Files – your design files, include the design layout, detailing copper layers, solder masks, and silkscreen layers.

2. Drill Files – specify the locations and sizes of holes for vias and component leads.

3. Bill of Materials (BOM) – a list of all components required for the board, including part numbers and quantities.

4. Pick and Place File – guides the automated machines on where to place each component on the PCB.

What Software to Use for PCB Design?

Choosing the right software can make the design process much easier, especially for beginners. Here are a few commonly used PCB design tools:

KiCad: This is a free, open-source software that’s great for both beginners and professionals. It has a user-friendly interface and includes a schematic editor, PCB layout, and 3D viewer.

Eagle: Popular among hobbyists, Eagle offers a simple design process and an extensive component library. It’s free for small designs but has premium features for more advanced projects.

Altium Designer: For more complex projects, Altium Designer is an industry-standard tool with advanced features. While it’s pricier, it offers professional-grade tools for high-level PCB design.

How Do You Manufacture a PCB Board?

Manufacturing a PCB involves several steps, and understanding the process helps ensure your design is ready for production. Here’s a simplified overview:

Step 1: Designing the PCB

Using PCB design software to create the PCB layout. The design process includes defining the schematic, component placement, and trace routing. Designers must consider factors such as signal integrity, power distribution, and thermal management.

Step 2: Design Review and Engineering Questions

Once the initial design is complete, a thorough review is conducted. This includes checking for design rule violations, verifying component footprints, and ensuring all connections are correct. Engineers may raise questions about potential performance issues, manufacturability, and compliance with regulatory standards. Feedback from this review may lead to modifications to optimize the design.

Step 3: Printing the PCB Design

After finalizing the design, the PCB layout is printed onto a transparent film, which will be used as a photomask for the etching process. This film represents the layers of the PCB, including copper and solder mask layers.

Step 4: Printing the Copper for the Interior Layer

The copper layers are printed onto the laminate using a photoresist process. The photoresist is applied to the copper-clad laminate, and the printed film is exposed to UV light. The areas that are exposed to light will become soluble and can be washed away, leaving behind a copper pattern that matches the PCB design.

Step 5: Etch the Inner Layers or Core to Remove Copper

The exposed copper is etched away using a chemical process, leaving only the desired copper traces. This step must be carefully controlled to ensure the traces are of the correct width and spacing, as specified in the design. The etching process can be done using either chemical etching or laser etching.

Step 6: Layer Alignment

Once the inner layers are etched, they must be aligned correctly for lamination.

Step 7: Automated Optical Inspection (AOI)

Automated Optical Inspection is performed to check the accuracy of the printed copper layers. Any discrepancies, such as missing or misaligned traces, can be identified and corrected before proceeding to the next steps.

Step 8: Laminating the PCB Layers

The aligned layers are then laminated together using heat and pressure. It combines the different layers, including copper, dielectric, and solder mask layers, into a single, solid structure.

Step 9: Drilling

Once the layers are laminated, holes are drilled for vias and mounting holes. The drilling process requires precision, as these holes must align perfectly with the design specifications. Computer-controlled drilling machines are typically used to achieve the necessary accuracy.

Step 10: PCB Plating

After drilling, the PCB goes through an electroplating process where a conductive layer is added to the walls of the drilled holes.

Step 11: Outer Layer Imaging

Similar to the inner layers, the outer layers are prepared for imaging. A photoresist is applied, and the printed film of the outer layer design is aligned and exposed to UV light. The unwanted areas are washed away, leaving a pattern on the copper layer.

Step 12: Outer Layer Etching

The outer copper layers are then etched to remove the unprotected copper, leaving behind the desired copper traces.

Step 13: Outer Layer AOI

Another round of Automated Optical Inspection is conducted on the outer layers to ensure that the copper traces and pads are correctly formed.

Step 14: Solder Mask Application

A solder mask layer is applied to protect the PCB and prevent solder from bridging between components during assembly. The solder mask is typically a green epoxy coating, but it can also be available in other colors. The areas where solder is needed are left exposed.

Step 15: Silkscreen Application

Silkscreen printing is used to apply labels, component designators, logos, and other markings onto the PCB surface.

Step 16: Finishing the PCB

The finishing process includes applying surface finishes such as HASL (Hot Air Solder Leveling), ENIG (Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold), or OSP (Organic Solderability Preservative) and so many surface treatments.

Step 17: Electrical Reliability Test (E-test)

Before packaging, the PCBs undergo electrical testing to ensure that all circuits function correctly. This may include continuity testing, insulation resistance testing, and high-voltage testing.

Step 18: Profiling and Route Out

The final PCB is profiled and routed to its specific shape, including cutting out the edges and any slots or cutouts required.

Step 19: Quality Check and Visual Inspection

A final quality check and visual inspection are performed to ensure that all specifications have been met. Examining for any physical defects, such as scratches, solder mask misalignment, or improper solder application.

Step 20: Packaging and Delivery

Once all checks are complete, the PCBs are cleaned, packaged, and prepared for delivery. Proper packaging is essential to protect the PCBs during shipping.

What Is the Cheapest PCB Finish?

The cheapest finish is HASL, which is also widely used. HASL applies a thin layer of molten solder to the surface, providing good protection and easy solderability. However, it’s not always suitable for fine-pitch components or designs requiring a flat surface. Other options, such as ENIG (Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold), are more expensive but provide a smoother, more durable finish for advanced designs.

Developing a PCB for the first time can feel like a daunting task, but by understanding the basics and using the right tools, it’s a process that anyone can learn. From following simple design rules to choosing affordable software and finishes, creating a PCB can be a good experience. Working closely with manufacturers and learning through trial and error will sharpen your skills over time.

How Much Does It Cost to Get a PCB Board Made?

The cost of producing a PCB depends on several factors, such as the size, number of layers, material used, and whether you’re doing a prototype run or full production. For a simple, single-sided board, costs can start as low as $10 to $20 per board, but more complex, multi-layer designs can cost upwards of $100 or more per board.

Additional costs may include shipping, testing, and assembly if you are having components mounted by the manufacturer. It’s always a good idea to get quotes from multiple manufacturers and consider both cost and quality.

If you don’t want to develop a PCB board by yourself, choosing a reliable EMS PCB manufacturer like Best Technology. We are engaging in PCB manufacturing over 18 years, we deeply understand every design rules and know which one is best for manufacturing. Best Team offer full turnkey PCB & PCBA service for over the world. We can help to PCB design, PCB layout, PCB manufacturing, components sourcing, PCB assembly, box building, and function testing. Give us your ideal, we can make it come true!

What is Aluminum Nitride PCB?

Aluminum nitride PCB also known as Aluminum nitride ceramic PCB or short for AlN PCB. It is a high-performance circuit board made from aluminum nitride ceramic, a material known for its exceptional thermal conductivity and electrical insulation properties. These boards are commonly used in industries where efficient heat dissipation is crucial, such as in power electronics, LED applications, and high-frequency devices. AlN PCBs are gaining popularity due to their ability to withstand extreme temperatures.

Aluminum Nitride PCB | Aluminum Nitride Ceramic PCB

Benefits of AlN PCBs

One of the key advantages of AlN PCBs is their excellent thermal conductivity, which helps prevent overheating in electronic components. With exceptional thermal conductivity of 170 W/mK, strong dielectric strength, and a low thermal expansion coefficient (CTE <4 ppm/°C), AlN is widely used in applications like high-power LEDs, lasers, high-current switches, and even ultra-low temperature vacuum electronics such as those in quantum computing. In addition to these features, AlN offers the same benefits as other ceramic materials, including rigidity, environmental and chemical resistance, and 0% water absorption.

Key reasons for choosing Aluminum Nitride over other PCB materials include:

Outstanding thermal conductivity of 170 W/mK

Excellent dielectric properties

High operating temperatures exceeding 350°C

Low thermal expansion coefficient (<4 ppm/°C)

Compact designs due to better integration

Hermetically sealed packages with 0% water absorption

Minimal to no outgassing

What is the Thermal Conductivity of Aluminum Nitride PCB?

‌The thermal conductivity of aluminum nitride PCB ranges from 170-230W/(m·K).

The high thermal conductivity of aluminum nitride PCB is due to its unique structure and chemical composition. The thermal conductivity of aluminum nitride ceramic substrate is 2-3 times higher than that of traditional alumina ceramics and silicon-based ceramics, and 10-20 times higher than that of titanium substrate. This high thermal conductivity allows them to effectively dissipate heat from high-power electronic components, preventing overheating and ensuring stable performance. The ability to manage heat efficiently makes AlN PCBs an ideal choice for applications that generate a significant amount of heat, such as power modules, LEDs, and RF components. In comparison to other materials like aluminum oxide, which has lower thermal conductivity (around 20-30 W/mK), aluminum nitride stands out as a top choice for heat-sensitive applications.

Factors affect thermal conductivity of AlN PCB

Although the theoretical thermal conductivity of AlN is extremely high, its performance in practical applications is limited by a number of factors, mainly including:

Microstructure

Phonon scattering is a key mechanism for heat conduction. Grain boundaries, interfaces, second phases, and defects can all affect the mean free path of phonons, thereby influencing thermal conductivity. High-purity, low-defect single-crystal AlN has a longer phonon mean free path and higher thermal conductivity.

Oxygen Impurity Content

AlN’s strong affinity with oxygen leads to the easy introduction of oxygen impurities, which form alumina films and lattice defects, such as aluminum vacancies. These significantly reduce the phonon mean free path, lowering thermal conductivity. When the oxygen concentration is below 0.75%, oxygen atoms primarily replace nitrogen atoms in the lattice; however, exceeding this concentration causes aluminum vacancies to disappear and results in the formation of extended defects, further affecting thermal conductivity.

Sintering Process and Additives

By selecting appropriate sintering additives (such as Y₂O₃-Li₂O, Y₂O₃-CaC₂ composite systems), densification can be achieved at lower temperatures, while reducing the formation of oxygen impurities and second phases, effectively improving the thermal conductivity of AlN ceramics. These additives help purify grain boundaries and optimize the microstructure, facilitating more efficient phonon transmission.

What is Aluminum Nitride PCB Used For?

Aluminum nitride as a stable hexagonal wurtzite covalent bond compound, has shown extensive application potential in the field of electronics and optoelectronics due to its unique physical and chemical properties. Its crystal structure takes AlN4 tetrahedron as the basic unit, space group P63mc, belongs to the hexagonal crystal system, which gives AlN a series of excellent properties and use in advanced applications.

Some common applications include:

Optical Communication

Integrated Circuits and High-Power Electronic Devices

Power Electronics

Wafer chips

Epoxy Resin Packaging

Optical Devices and Piezoelectric Devices

Industrial Materials

Acoustic Devices

Aerospace

Military

Why is Aluminum Nitride Expensive?

The high cost of aluminum nitride PCBs stems from several factors.

First of all, the raw material cost of aluminum nitride PCB is higher. The preparation of aluminum nitride powder requires high purity raw materials, synthesis methods include direct nitriding method, carbothermal reduction method, self-propagating high temperature synthesis and chemical vapor deposition method, etc. These methods have high requirements on equipment and technology, resulting in higher costs.

Secondly, the production process is complicated. The preparation process of aluminum nitride PCB is complex, including multiple steps such as molding and sintering, which has high requirements for equipment and technology and a high production threshold.

Finally, the market demand is large. Aluminum nitride PCB in power electronics, communication equipment, automotive electronics and other fields have a wide range of applications, especially in high power, high frequency and other occasions, its excellent heat dissipation and insulation performance can not be replaced, resulting in short supply in the market, the price of natural rising.

Aluminum Nitride PCB vs. Alumina Oxide PCB

Both aluminum nitride (AlN) and alumina oxide (Al2O3) are ceramic materials used in PCB manufacturing, but they differ significantly in terms of performance. AlN offers superior thermal conductivity, typically 170-230 W/mK, compared to aluminum oxide’s lower range of 20-30 W/mK. This makes AlN the better option for applications requiring efficient heat dissipation, such as high-power electronics and LED lighting.

However, aluminum oxide is more cost-effective and is often used in applications where high thermal conductivity is not as crucial. While Al2O3 provides good electrical insulation and is easier to produce, it may not perform as well in heat-sensitive environments as AlN. Therefore, the choice between AlN and Al2O3 depends on the specific thermal and budgetary requirements of the application. Here are the parameters of AlN and Al2O3 materials:

Parameter	Aluminum Nitride (AlN)	Alumina Oxide (Al2O3)
Thermal conductivity	170-230 W/m.k	24-30 W/m.k
Dielectric constant	8.8	9.2-10
Dielectric strength	15-25kV/mm	10-15kV/mm
Temperature resistance	1000-1500C	1000-1200C
CTE	4.0 ppm/K	6.5-7 ppm/K
Flexural strength	450MPa	320MPa
Dielectric breakdown voltage	14 V/m	10 V/m

AlN Ceramic PCB Design Considerations

When designing an aluminum nitride PCB, several factors need to be considered to optimize performance:

1. Trace Width

The trace width on AlN PCBs should be a minimum of 10 mils. This ensures that the conductor cross-section is sufficient to handle the current and heat dissipation needs. Given the thermal advantages of AlN, wider traces help in spreading heat more efficiently, minimizing the risk of overheating in power-dense applications.

2. Trace Clearance

Clearances between adjacent traces should be at least 8 to 10 mils. AlN PCBs often work with higher voltage levels, making spacing critical to prevent arcing or dielectric breakdown. In high-power designs, careful spacing between traces reduces the likelihood of signal interference and maintains the board’s insulation integrity.

3. Via Pads

For via pads, a minimum diameter of 16 mils is recommended. This provides sufficient area for stable soldering and ensures proper electrical connection through the via. Depending on the board’s application, larger via pads may be necessary to accommodate higher currents or thermal dissipation needs. Via sizing should also account for assembly techniques, such as reflow soldering or thermal management features, like thermal vias, which enhance heat transfer away from components.

4. Pad Geometry Adjustments

Unlike FR-4 designs, AlN PCBs often require specific adjustments in pad geometries. The mechanical and thermal properties of AlN are quite different from those of traditional PCBs. The expansion rate, hardness, and substrate fragility mean that pad designs should allow for thermal expansion and contraction without causing stress fractures. Proper pad design also ensures better solder joint reliability, particularly for components exposed to continuous thermal cycling.

5. Gold Plating for Wire Bonding Pads

In high-performance applications, wire bonding is often used, and gold plating is a preferred surface finish for wire bonding pads. The use of gold provides a stable, corrosion-resistant surface that improves bond integrity and longevity. Wire bonding is especially critical in high-frequency, high-reliability devices, where the connections must maintain integrity under thermal stress or in harsh environments.

6. Component and Solder Matching

All components and solder materials must match the electrical and mechanical properties of the AlN substrate. Mismatches in thermal expansion between the PCB material and components can lead to stress, causing cracking or delamination. It’s important to select components and solder that can withstand high temperatures and thermal cycles while maintaining compatibility with AlN’s characteristics, especially in applications like power electronics and RF circuits.

7. Hermetic Sealing and Height Restrictions

For applications requiring hermetic sealing, such as aerospace or medical devices, height restrictions may apply to the components on the PCB. Hermetic seals protect against moisture and environmental contaminants, ensuring long-term reliability in sensitive applications. The overall component height should be kept in line with the sealing requirements, and compact designs are often necessary to meet stringent packaging constraints.

8. Thermal Expansion Management

When attaching large dies or high-power devices, it’s crucial to model and account for thermal expansion. Even though AlN has a low thermal expansion coefficient (<4 ppm/°C), the difference in expansion rates between components and the substrate can create mechanical stress, especially during thermal cycling. Careful design, including flexible connections or underfill materials, can help mitigate these effects.

9. Thermal Vias

Thermal vias are essential for managing heat in high-power applications. By placing thermal vias directly underneath hot components, heat can be efficiently transferred away from sensitive areas, extending the lifespan of both the components and the PCB itself. In many designs, a network of thermal vias is integrated with heat sinks or spreaders to further improve heat dissipation.

10. Surface Finishes and Coatings

Aluminum nitride PCBs can benefit from surface finishes such as electroless nickel immersion gold (ENIG) or immersion silver, which protect the copper traces from oxidation and provide excellent solderability. The choice of surface finish may also depend on the specific application environment and the reliability requirements, especially in high-power or high-frequency circuits.

FAQs About AlN PCBs

1. How durable are aluminum nitride PCBs?

AlN PCBs are highly durable and can withstand extreme temperatures and harsh environments.

2. Can AlN PCBs be used in high-frequency applications?

Yes, aluminum nitride PCBs are well-suited for high-frequency and high-speed applications due to their excellent electrical insulation and low signal loss.

3. Are aluminum nitride PCBs environmentally friendly?

While the production process can be resource-intensive, AlN PCBs offer longer lifespans and higher efficiency, which can reduce the environmental impact over time.

4. How do AlN PCBs compare with metal-core PCBs?

Metal-core PCBs, such as those with an aluminum core, provide good thermal management but lack the superior electrical insulation of AlN PCBs. AlN PCBs are preferred for applications requiring both high thermal conductivity and insulation.

5. What industries typically use aluminum nitride PCBs?

Industries like power electronics, aerospace, automotive, and telecommunications commonly use AlN PCBs for their high-performance needs.

What is a 2 Layer Aluminum PCB?

A 2-layer aluminum PCB is a type of metal core circuit board that contains two conductive layers, usually copper, with an aluminum core or base material. Aluminum PCBs are used for their excellent heat dissipation properties, and always used in high-power applications like LED lighting, power supplies, and automotive systems. The aluminum base offers better thermal management than standard FR4 PCBs. In a 2-layer aluminum PCB, the two conductive copper layers allow more complex routing for electrical signals compared to single-layer boards.

2 Layer Aluminum PCB | Metal Core PCB Manufacturer

2 Layer Aluminum PCB Stack-Up

The stack-up of a 2-layer aluminum PCB consists of the following:

Top Copper Layer: This is where the signal traces and components are located. It can vary in thickness, depending on current-carrying requirements.

Dielectric Layer: A layer of insulation that separates the top copper layer from the aluminum core. It plays a key role in electrical isolation and heat transfer.

Aluminum Base: This core provides structural support and excellent heat dissipation properties. It also serves as the grounding plane in some designs.

Bottom Copper Layer: The second conductive layer allows for more advanced routing.

How Thick is a 2 Layer PCB Layer?

The thickness of a 2-layer aluminum PCB can vary depending on the specific design requirements, but typically, the copper layer is about 1 to 2 ounces (35 to 70 microns) thick. The aluminum base itself is thicker, usually between 1.0 mm and 3.0 mm, depending on the board’s required rigidity and heat dissipation needs. The overall board thickness generally ranges between 1.2 mm and 3.2 mm.

A thicker aluminum core improves heat transfer, but the board’s thickness must also align with the product’s mechanical and electrical requirements. Designers often have to balance between sufficient thermal performance and the overall board size for practical applications.

Is Thicker Aluminum PCB have Better Heat Dissipation?

Generally speaking, the thinner the thickness of the aluminum PCB, the faster the heat conduction speed. The thicker the thickness of the aluminum PCB, the slower the heat conduction rate. The thermal conductivity of aluminum-based circuit board mainly depends on its material and structure. Although thickness affects the path length of heat conduction, the more critical factors are the thermal conductivity and structural design of the material. For example, high thermal conductivity materials such as copper, silver and other high thermal conductivity materials will significantly improve the thermal conductivity of aluminum substrate. In addition, the thickness and thermal conductivity of the insulation layer will also affect the overall thermal conductivity effect ‌.

Specifically, the thermal conductivity of the aluminum-based circuit board is also related to the thickness of its insulation layer. The thicker the insulation layer, although it can withstand higher voltage, it will also reduce the heat transfer efficiency. Therefore, choosing the appropriate insulation layer thickness and materials with high thermal conductivity is the key to ensuring efficient thermal conductivity of aluminum-based circuit boards ‌.

2 Layers Aluminum PCB vs. Double Sided Aluminum PCB

Though the terms “2 layers aluminum PCB” and “double-sided aluminum PCB” might sound similar, there are slight differences.

A 2-layer aluminum PCB contains two conductive copper layers. These layers can be arranged to handle signal routing and ground planes separately. In contrast, a double-sided aluminum PCB typically has one copper layer on either side of the aluminum core, offering less flexibility in routing. Here is the stack up of double sided aluminum PCB:

How Much Does Aluminum PCB Cost?

The cost of an aluminum PCB, including a 2-layer version, depends on several factors such as the board’s thickness, copper weight, design complexity, and production volume. On average, 2-layer aluminum PCBs cost more than single-sided aluminum PCBs because of the additional copper layer and routing complexity.

For small orders, prices might range between $5 and $15 per square foot. For larger production runs, costs can decrease significantly due to economies of scale. Factors like the thickness of the aluminum base and copper layer, as well as additional features like surface finishes, can also influence the price.

While aluminum PCBs are more expensive than standard FR4 boards, their enhanced thermal performance can reduce overall system costs by improving reliability and reducing the need for additional cooling measures.

How Many Layers Should a PCB Have?

The number of layers a PCB should have depends on the complexity of the design. For simple applications like LED lighting or power conversion, a 2-layer aluminum PCB is often sufficient. It provides more routing flexibility than a single-layer board while still offering effective heat dissipation.

For more complex designs requiring high-density interconnections or additional functionality, a multi-layer PCB with three or more layers might be necessary. However, multi-layer aluminum PCBs are rare because their primary function is thermal management, which is typically solved within one or two layers. The decision to use more layers depends on the specific application, power requirements, and signal integrity needed in the design.

Aluminum PCB Design Guidelines

When designing a 2-layer aluminum PCB, several factors must be considered to maximize performance:

Thermal Management: Since aluminum PCBs are chosen for their thermal properties, optimizing heat dissipation is critical. Components that generate significant heat should be placed near the aluminum core, allowing for faster heat transfer.

Copper Thickness: The copper thickness should match the current-carrying requirements of the design. Using thicker copper can help manage higher current loads, but it also increases the cost and weight of the PCB.

Dielectric Layer: The thickness and material of the dielectric layer play a crucial role in both thermal and electrical performance. A thinner dielectric layer improves heat dissipation but may limit electrical isolation. Choosing the right dielectric material is key for balancing performance and reliability.

Via Placement: For a 2-layer design, vias must be carefully placed to connect the two copper layers. Vias should be positioned to minimize electrical interference and maintain signal integrity.

Component Placement: Heat-sensitive components should be placed away from high-power components. This minimizes thermal stress on sensitive devices and ensures reliable operation over the PCB’s lifespan.

Aluminum PCBs may come with a higher price tag compared to traditional FR4 boards, but the long-term benefits in heat management, performance, and durability make them an excellent investment for demanding applications. Whether you’re working on power electronics, automotive circuits, or lighting solutions, a 2-layer aluminum PCB can provide the right balance between complexity and thermal efficiency.

If you’re in need of high-quality, custom aluminum PCBs, Best Technology specializes in delivering tailored solutions for your specific design needs. With 18+ years of experience in PCB manufacturing, we ensure top-notch performance, quality, and reliability for all your projects. Let us help you bring your ideas to life with the right aluminum PCB solution!

How to convert Cadence17.2’s .brd file to HyperLynx9.4.1’s .hyp file

How to convert Cadence17.2’s .brd file to HyperLynx9.4.1’s .hyp file?Recently, I used Hyperlynx to simulate the signal integrity of PCBs, and I needed to convert various PCB formats into .hyp formats. In the process, I found that the PCB drawn by AD can be directly exported in .hyp format, which is very convenient, but the PCB drawn by Cadence cannot be directly exported. I need to use the built-in PCB converter of Hyperlynx to convert the .brd file of Cadence, as shown below:

But the conversion has always failed. I checked the .ERR file and found a line like this: ERROR: Cadance Allegro utility:extracta, so it is a problem with extracta.exe.

The specific solution is to add the system variable CDSROOT, and the value is D:\Cadence\Cadence_SPB_17.2-2016\tools\bin (the location of your extracta.exe). After confirming, restart the computer and the problem is solved.

Tutorial on converting Cadence17.2’s .brd file to HyperLynx9.4.1’s .hyp file

Tutorial on converting Cadence17.2’s .brd file to HyperLynx9.4.1’s .hyp file?Open the PCB file in Allegro, select ODB++inside in file–>export, select Export as ODBV6, click 1, and then click Accept….

HyperLynx’s built-in conversion function can directly convert Allegro’s .brd file for use, but for some reason the following error always occurs. I didn’t find a solution online, so I had to find another way.

Another way to import PCB into HyperLynx is to convert the file to ODB++inside format. This method requires the installation of the ODB++inside plug-in in advance.

After installing the plug-in, you can convert the .brd file.
First open the PCB file in Allegro, select ODB++inside in file–>export, the following figure appears, select Export as ODBV6, click 1, and then click Accept.

Wait for the conversion to succeed.

This file is the converted file
Open HyperLynx9.4.1, select open ODB++ in file, select the odbjob_v6 folder, and click select folder.

Wait to open.

Click ok. .

What is a .hyp file?

.hyp file is a file used to record key information such as boundary conditions, material properties, solver settings, etc. of the analysis. ‌ This file is usually associated with HyperWorks analysis software and is the basis for numerical calculation and analysis.

The specific uses of .hyp files include:

‌Geometry model file‌: represents the geometry of the product or structure.
‌Mesh file‌: shows the process of dividing the model into finite elements.
‌Simulation setting file‌: records the key setting information of the analysis.
‌Result file‌: contains the calculated engineering quantities such as strain, stress, displacement, etc.
‌Post-processing file‌: used to visualize and analyze results in tools such as HyperView.
‌Report document‌: usually in PDF or Word format, recording detailed results and conclusions of the analysis‌1.
In terms of use, for example, in PCB tool software, .hyp files can be created and edited through the BroadSim function, including setting line characteristics, editing stacking information, etc., to simulate and analyze circuit boards‌2. In addition, the Hype software also supports exporting to .hyp format files for further analysis and processing.

‌What is a high frequency pcb communication circuits

High frequency pcb communication circuits to a circuit board with an operating frequency in the high frequency band (usually greater than 300MHz or a wavelength less than 1 meter), which is mainly used to transmit high-frequency signals and data. ‌ This type of circuit board is widely used in radio frequency (RF) and microwave fields, such as communication equipment, radar systems, satellite communications, and high-speed data transmission systems.

What is a high frequency pcb communication circuits

The characteristics of high-frequency circuits include challenges such as transmission line effects, signal integrity issues, and electromagnetic interference (EMI). Due to the short wavelength of high-frequency signals, traditional low-frequency circuit design methods are no longer applicable, and special design and processing methods are required to ensure the performance and stability of the circuit.

High-frequency circuit boards are produced on microwave substrate copper-clad boards using ordinary rigid circuit board manufacturing methods or special processing methods. They need to have high-quality electrical properties and chemical stability to meet the requirements of high-frequency signal transmission.

Definition of high frequency pcb communication circuits

High-frequency circuit board, as a special circuit board, is mainly suitable for occasions with high electromagnetic frequency, especially in the fields of high frequency (frequency greater than 300MHz or wavelength less than 1 meter) and microwave (frequency greater than 3GHz or wavelength less than 0.1 meter).

It is a circuit board made on a microwave substrate copper-clad board by adopting some manufacturing processes or special processing methods of ordinary rigid circuit boards. Generally speaking, when the frequency of the circuit board reaches above 1GHz, it can be defined as a high-frequency board.

With the rapid development of science and technology, more and more equipment designs have begun to involve microwave frequency bands (>1GHz) and even expanded to the millimeter wave field (such as 77GHz), especially in popular applications such as 77GHz millimeter wave antennas on vehicles.

This trend not only promotes the continuous increase in frequency, but also puts higher requirements on the substrate of the circuit board.

For example, the substrate material needs to have excellent electrical properties, stable chemical properties, and as the frequency of the power signal increases, the loss on the substrate must be extremely small. Therefore, the importance of high-frequency boards is becoming more and more prominent.

Advantages of high frequency pcb communication circuits

The main advantages of high frequency pcb communication circuits include efficient data transmission, strong anti-interference ability, high-frequency bandwidth and high reliability. ‌

high frequency pcb communication circuits can achieve efficient data transmission. High-frequency signals have a short cycle and can transmit more information per unit time, so they have the advantage of large-capacity transmission. In addition, high-frequency signals can achieve fast signal processing and are suitable for application scenarios that require high-speed data transmission and high real-time requirements.
high frequency pcb communication circuits have strong anti-interference capabilities. Due to the short wavelength of high-frequency signals, they can better avoid external interference and attenuation and have strong anti-interference capabilities. This makes high-frequency signals have advantages in fields such as wireless communications and radar systems, and can achieve stable signal transmission and reception. ‌
high frequency pcb communication circuits also have the advantage of high-frequency bandwidth. High-frequency signals correspond to a larger frequency range and can provide higher bandwidth than low-frequency signals. This means that more data can be transmitted, thereby supporting higher data rates and richer media content. ‌
High reliability of high frequency pcb communication circuits is also one of its advantages. The use of high-quality materials and manufacturing processes can effectively resist external interference and oxidation corrosion, ensure stable performance in high temperature environments, and thus extend the service life of the circuit board.

Classification of high frequency pcb communication circuits

Classification by material:

Organic materials: including phenolic resin, glass fiber/epoxy resin, Polyimide, BT/Epoxy (bismaleimide triazine/epoxy resin), etc.
Inorganic materials: mainly including aluminum, copper-invar-copper, ceramic, etc. These materials are mainly selected for their excellent heat dissipation function.

Classification by the hardness of the finished product:

Rigid PCB: has a solid structure and stable performance.
Flexible PCB: has flexibility and bendability, suitable for occasions requiring flexible wiring.
Rigid-Flex PCB: It combines the characteristics of rigid and flexible boards, and has higher design flexibility and wide application.

Classification by structure:

Single-sided board: A circuit board with a conductive layer on only one side.
Double-sided board: Both sides are coated with conductive layers, separated by insulating materials in the middle.
Multilayer board: It is composed of multiple conductive layers and insulating layers, and has higher circuit integration and reliability.

Classification by use:

Communication board: It is used in various communication equipment and systems.
Consumable electronic board: It is commonly found in consumer electronic products.
Military board: A circuit board that meets special requirements in the military field.
Computer board: A circuit board used in computer hardware.
Semiconductor board: A circuit board used in the manufacturing and testing process of semiconductors.
Electrical test board: A circuit board used in electronic testing and measurement equipment.

How to choose high-frequency circuit board high-speed board

When choosing PCB board, you must find a balance between meeting design requirements, mass production and cost. In short, the design requirements cover two aspects: electrical performance and structural reliability. Especially when designing ultra-high-speed PCB (frequency greater than GHz), the choice of board is particularly important. For example, the commonly used FR-4 material will have a significantly increased dielectric loss (Df, i.e., Dielectric Loss) at a frequency of several GHz, and may no longer be applicable.

Taking the 10Gb/S high-speed digital signal as an example, this signal can be regarded as the superposition of multiple sinusoidal wave signals of different frequencies. Therefore, the 10Gb/S signal contains multiple components of different frequencies: such as a 5GHz fundamental signal, a 3rd-order 15GHz signal, a 5th-order 25GHz signal, and a 7th-order 35GHz signal. In order to ensure the integrity of digital signals, maintain the steepness of the upper and lower edges of the signals, and be compatible with the low-loss, low-distortion transmission of RF microwaves (the high-frequency harmonic part of the digital signal reaches the microwave frequency band), the selection of materials for high-speed digital circuit PCBs has many similarities with the needs of RF microwave circuits.

In actual engineering operations, the selection of high-frequency boards seems simple, but the factors that need to be considered are quite complex. Through the introduction of this article, PCB design engineers or high-speed project leaders can have a deeper understanding of the characteristics and selection of boards. Understand the electrical properties, thermal properties, reliability and other characteristics of the board, and use the stacking design reasonably to create products with high reliability and excellent processability, and achieve the best balance of various factors.

Composition and key components of high frequency pcb communication circuits

High frequency pcb communication circuits are basically composed of passive components, active devices and passive networks. Passive components include resistors, capacitors and inductors, which mainly exhibit resistance characteristics at low frequencies, but also exhibit reactance characteristics at high frequencies. Active devices such as high-frequency triodes have the characteristics of high gain, high frequency response and low noise, and are widely used in television, radio communication, radar and other fields.

Application of high frequency pcb communication circuits

High frequency pcb communication circuits are widely used in long-distance communication systems, with a communication distance of up to thousands of kilometers, and are often used to maintain communication between aircraft and bases. It occupies a high-frequency band of 2~30MHz, uses skywave propagation, and can propagate over long distances. Modern airborne high-frequency communication systems usually use single-sideband communication systems, which can greatly compress the occupied frequency band and save transmission power. However, high-frequency communication is also susceptible to electrical interference such as ionospheric disturbances and lightning, generating radio background noise, and there is fading, and the signal is sometimes strong and sometimes weak.

Design Guidelines for High Frequency PCB Communication Circuits

Design Guidelines

High Frequency PCB Communication Circuits

How to avoid high-frequency interference?

The basic idea of avoiding high-frequency interference is to minimize the interference of the electromagnetic field of high-frequency signals, which is the so-called crosstalk. You can increase the distance between high-speed signals and analog signals, or add ground guard/shunt traces next to analog signals. Also pay attention to the noise interference of digital ground to analog ground.

How to solve the signal integrity problem in high-frequency communication PCB design?

Signal integrity is basically an impedance matching problem. The factors that affect impedance matching include the architecture and output impedance of the signal source, the characteristic impedance of the trace, the characteristics of the load end, and the topology of the trace. The solution is to rely on termination and adjust the topology of the trace.

How is the differential wiring method implemented?

There are two points to note when wiring differential pairs. One is that the length of the two lines should be as equal as possible, and the other is that the spacing between the two lines (this spacing is determined by the differential impedance) should remain unchanged, that is, they should be kept parallel. There are two parallel methods, one is that two lines run on the same routing layer (side-by-side), and the other is that two lines run on two adjacent layers (over-under). Generally, the former side-by-side (side by side, shoulder to shoulder) is more commonly used.

How to implement differential routing for clock signal lines with only one output end?

To use differential routing, it must be meaningful if both the signal source and the receiving end are differential signals. Therefore, differential routing cannot be used for clock signals with only one output end.

Can a matching resistor be added between the differential line pairs at the receiving end?

The matching resistor between the differential line pairs at the receiving end is usually added, and its value should be equal to the value of the differential impedance. This will improve the signal quality.

Why should the routing of differential pairs be close and parallel?

The routing method of differential pairs should be appropriately close and parallel. The so-called appropriate proximity is because this spacing will affect the value of differential impedance, which is an important parameter for designing differential pairs. Parallelism is also required because the consistency of differential impedance must be maintained. If the two lines are sometimes far away and sometimes close, the differential impedance will be inconsistent, which will affect the signal integrity and timing delay.

How to deal with some theoretical conflicts in actual wiring?

Basically, it is right to separate the analog/digital ground. It should be noted that the signal routing should try not to cross the split place (moat), and the return current path of the power supply and signal should not be too large.

The crystal oscillator is an analog positive feedback oscillation circuit. To have a stable oscillation signal, the loop gain and phase specifications must be met. The oscillation specification of this analog signal is easily interfered. Even if ground guard traces are added, it may not be possible to completely isolate the interference. Moreover, if it is too far away, the noise on the ground plane will also affect the positive feedback oscillation circuit. Therefore, the distance between the crystal oscillator and the chip must be as close as possible.

It is true that there are many conflicts between high-speed wiring and EMI requirements. But the basic principle is that the resistors, capacitors or ferrite beads added due to EMI cannot cause some electrical characteristics of the signal to not meet the specifications. Therefore, first use the techniques of arranging routing and PCB stacking to solve or reduce EMI problems, such as routing high-speed signals on the inner layer. Only then use resistors, capacitors or ferrite beads to reduce damage to the signal.

How to solve the contradiction between manual routing and automatic routing of high-speed signals?

Most of the current powerful routing software’s automatic routing tools have set constraints to control the winding method and the number of vias. The winding engine capabilities and constraint setting items of various EDA companies are sometimes very different. For example, whether there are enough constraints to control the winding method of the serpentine, whether the routing spacing of the differential pair can be controlled, etc. This will affect whether the routing method generated by automatic routing can meet the designer’s ideas. In addition, the difficulty of manually adjusting the routing is also related to the ability of the winding engine. For example, the pushing ability of the routing, the pushing ability of the via, and even the pushing ability of the routing to the copper plating, etc. Therefore, choosing a routing tool with a strong winding engine capability is the solution.

About test coupon.

The test coupon is used to measure the characteristic impedance of the produced PCB board with TDR (Time Domain Reflectometer) to see if it meets the design requirements. Generally, the impedance to be controlled is single line and differential pair. Therefore, the trace width and line spacing (when there is a differential pair) on the test coupon should be the same as the line to be controlled. The location of the ground point during measurement is important. In order to reduce the inductance of the ground lead, the grounding point of the TDR probe is usually very close to the probe tip, so the distance and method between the point where the signal is measured on the test coupon and the ground point should be consistent with the probe used.

In high-speed PCB design, the blank area of the signal layer can be copper-plated, and how should the copper of multiple signal layers be distributed in grounding and power supply?

Generally, the copper plating in the blank area is mostly grounded. However, when plating copper next to high-speed signal lines, pay attention to the distance between the copper plating and the signal line, because the copper plating will reduce the characteristic impedance of the trace a little. Also be careful not to affect the characteristic impedance of other layers, such as in the dual strip line structure.

Can the signal line on the power plane be calculated using the microstrip line model? Can the signal between the power and ground planes be calculated using the stripline model?

Yes, both the power plane and the ground plane must be considered as reference planes when calculating the characteristic impedance. For example, a four-layer board: top layer-power layer-ground layer-bottom layer. At this time, the model of the characteristic impedance of the top layer routing is a microstrip line model with the power plane as the reference plane.

Can the automatic generation of test points on high-density printed circuit boards by software generally meet the test requirements of mass production?

Whether the test points automatically generated by general software meet the test requirements depends on whether the specifications for adding test points meet the requirements of the test equipment. In addition, if the routing is too dense and the specifications for adding test points are strict, it may not be possible to automatically add test points to each line. Of course, the places to be tested need to be filled manually.

Will adding test points affect the quality of high-speed signals?

As for whether it will affect the signal quality, it depends on the way of adding test points and how fast the signal is. Basically, the additional test point (without using the existing via or DIP pin as the test point) may be added to the line or a short line may be pulled out from the line. The former is equivalent to adding a very small capacitor to the line, and the latter is an additional branch. Both situations will have some impact on the high-speed signal, and the degree of impact is related to the frequency speed of the signal and the edge rate of the signal. The magnitude of the impact can be known through simulation. In principle, the smaller the test point, the better (of course, it must meet the requirements of the test equipment) and the shorter the branch, the better.

How should the ground wires between the boards of a system be connected when several PCBs are connected to each other?

When the signals or power supplies between the PCB boards are in operation, for example, when the power supply or signal from board A is sent to board B, there will be an equal amount of current flowing back from the ground layer to board A (this is Kirchoff current law). The current on the ground layer will flow back to the impedance. Therefore, at each interface where the power supply or signal is connected to each other, the number of pins allocated to the ground layer should not be too small to reduce the impedance, so as to reduce the noise on the ground layer. In addition, the entire current loop can be analyzed, especially the part with larger current, and the connection method of the ground layer or ground wire can be adjusted to control the flow of current (for example, create low impedance at a certain place to let most of the current flow through this place) to reduce the impact on other more sensitive signals.

PCB Full Form

PCB stands for Printed Circuit Board, a key component in almost all electronic devices. It connects and supports electronic components using conductive tracks, pads, and other features. The design and production of PCBs require precise engineering, as they are crucial for the functionality of the final product.

What is PCB Quote Packaging?

PCB quote packaging refers to the process of gathering and organizing all the details needed to estimate the cost of producing a PCB. This includes not only the design specifications but also the materials, manufacturing processes, and other engineering considerations. It’s not just a financial calculation but a complete engineering analysis that ensures the quote is accurate, feasible, and optimized for production.

The quote must consider every detail that affects production—like material types, size, complexity, and production volume. The aim is to package all these details into a clear, comprehensive quote, ensuring the client understands what they are paying for and why.

Why is Engineering Important in PCB Quote Packaging?

Engineering plays a vital role in the PCB quoting process because it’s not just about estimating costs. It’s about understanding the technical requirements and ensuring that every aspect of the design and production is accounted for. Engineers analyze the design, materials, and manufacturing methods to ensure the quote reflects the real cost of production.

Without engineering insight, a quote could be inaccurate, leading to cost overruns or production delays. Engineers make sure that all technical details, such as layer count, trace width, and component placement, are properly considered.

What Are the Key Factors in a PCB Quote?

Several factors come into play when preparing a PCB quote:

PCB Quote Packaging is What Type of Engineering?

1. Type of manufacturing process

The technical type of PCB determines its complexity and cost. For example, simple single panels cost much less than multi-layer panels, while flexible circuits (FPC) or rigid and flexible panels require more complex manufacturing processes and naturally cost more. In addition, whether advanced technologies such as microvias, laser drilling, blind holes or buried holes are required can also have a significant impact on the quotation.

2. Material type

Materials are an important part of PCB costs. Common materials include FR4, ceramics, metal substrates, etc. FR4 is the most common base material and is suitable for most conventional applications, but for high-frequency, high-temperature environments, ceramic or metal-based materials may be more suitable, but their price is relatively high. Choosing the right material not only affects the performance, but also directly affects the cost.

3. IPC level

IPC grades reflect the quality standards of PCB manufacturing, commonly used are IPC-A-600 grades 1, 2 and 3. The higher the grade, the more stringent the manufacturing requirements, and the corresponding increase in cost. For example, grade 3 PCBS are usually used in high-demand fields such as aerospace and medical equipment, which require higher accuracy and quality control, so the price is higher.

4. Circuit design

PCB circuit design complexity directly affects manufacturing costs. Including wire width, spacing, hole size and so on, the production process has put forward different requirements. High density interconnect (HDI) boards typically require more elaborate wiring techniques and may involve the use of microvias, which will increase the difficulty and cost of manufacturing.

5. PCB size and yield

The size of the PCB directly affects the amount of material used, and the larger the board, the more material is needed. In addition, the yield is also an important factor affecting the quotation. PCB manufacturing with complex design or high density lines is prone to defects, resulting in decreased yield. That means manufacturers may need to produce more boards to meet orders, increasing costs.

6. Material thickness

Different applications require different thicknesses of PCB materials. The standard FR4 thickness is usually 1.6mm, but thinner or thicker boards are sometimes used. Changes in material thickness can affect the overall cost, especially if thicker sheets require special processing or higher strength, and manufacturing expenses will increase accordingly.

7. Copper thickness

The copper thickness in the PCB usually has a standard choice, such as 1oz, 2oz or even thicker copper layers. The higher the copper thickness, the better the conductivity of the PCB, suitable for high-current applications, but the increase in copper thickness will significantly increase the manufacturing cost, especially in the plating and etching process requires additional materials and processes.

8. Stack-up method

The stacking mode determines the number of layers and the interlayer structure of the PCB. Complex multilayer boards or HDI boards require more complex lamination processes. For example, the lamination method may involve multiple pressing, the use of prepregs or special insulation materials. Each additional layer requires more manufacturing steps, resulting in increased costs.

9. Quantity

The quantity of the order has a direct impact on the PCB quotation. High-volume production can reduce unit prices by spreading tooling and setup costs, while small-batch orders are typically more expensive due to relatively high production preparation and start-up costs.

10. Delivery date

The shorter the delivery time, the higher the quotation. Rush orders require prioritizing production, which can disrupt the plant’s production schedule and require additional resource deployment. To meet urgent delivery deadlines, manufacturers may need to work overtime or speed up production, increasing overall production costs.

These are just a few examples, but they show how engineering considerations are woven into every part of the quoting process.

PCB Manufacturing Process

How Do Engineers Calculate PCB Manufacturing Costs?

Engineers calculate PCB manufacturing costs by considering the design specifications and the production methods needed to meet those requirements. They start by analyzing the PCB’s layout and design, which determines factors like layer count, trace width, and hole size. Each of these elements has a direct impact on the materials used and the manufacturing process.

They also consider the assembly process—whether it’s surface-mount or through-hole—and what testing will be required. After evaluating these details, they calculate the costs associated with each step of the manufacturing process. This ensures the final quote is both accurate and comprehensive.

What Type of Engineer Designs PCBs?

Engineers who design PCBs typically have a bachelor’s degree or above in electrical engineering, automation, computer science, or a related field ‌ and understand the basics of electronic design, printed circuit board (PCB), and electronics manufacturing in the PCB industry. These engineers need to master PCB design software such as Altium Designer, Eagle PCB, PADS, or CAD, etc., as well as the use of related manufacturing and testing tools. At the same time, they need to have a knowledge of the PCB industry, a certain circuit design and electronic components knowledge, including digital and analog circuits, signal processing, power electronics, embedded systems, communication technology, etc. In addition, holding certificates such as IPC-2221/2222, IPC-A-600/610, and CID (Certified Interconnect Designer) can prove that they have relevant professional knowledge and skills, which can help improve their career competitiveness.

These engineers also need to have a strong sense of responsibility and team spirit, have good communication and coordination skills, and be able to work effectively with customers, manufacturers, and other team members. For junior engineers, it is recommended to study in a single point of depth, such as PCB design, SI simulation, thermal design, EMC design, product testing, etc., and then start from this advantage point to expand the scope of knowledge

What Materials Are Considered During PCB Quote Packaging?

The type of material used for a PCB is a major cost driver. Common materials include:

This is the most common material used in PCBs due to its balance of cost and performance. It’s versatile and reliable for most standard applications.

Metal Core

Metal core PCBs are used in applications where heat dissipation is a concern, such as LED lighting. These boards are more expensive due to the metal layer.

Ceramic

Ceramic materials are used for high-frequency or high-temperature applications. They are more costly but offer better performance in extreme conditions.

Each material has its own manufacturing process, which also affects the cost. For instance, metal core boards may require different drilling techniques compared to standard FR4 boards. Engineers must consider these details when preparing a quote.

How Does the Choice of PCB Manufacturing Methods Impact the Quote?

The method used to manufacture the PCB can greatly impact the final cost. Common methods include:

Surface-Mount Technology (SMT): This is the most common method for modern PCB assembly. It’s efficient and cost-effective for most applications.

Through-Hole Technology (THT): This method is used for components that require a stronger mechanical bond. It’s more labor-intensive and, therefore, more expensive.

Flexible and Rigid-Flex Manufacturing: These types of PCBs require specialized processes and materials, which can increase the cost.

Additionally, advanced techniques like laser drilling for microvias or selective soldering for complex assemblies may be necessary for high-precision designs. Each of these methods requires careful consideration, and engineers must choose the best process for both the design and the budget.

Who Designs PCB?

Since 2006, Best Technology has been the leading PCB quick turn manufacturer specializing in both PCB prototype and production quantities, initially produced single-sided and double-sided printed circuit boards for the consumer electronics market. Now, we provide not only FR4 PCB, but also some special PCB like flex circuit, metal core PCB, ceramic PCB, extra thin PCB, HDI PCB, IC substrate, busbar PCB, heavy copper PCB and so on. We can make 50 layers PCB, and it is not our limit.

Nowadays, Best Technology has grown to become a major PCB manufacturer in Asia to serve in diverse customers base such as electronics appliance, communication, educational electronics, power supplies, automations.

For more information about PCB, or to learn more about the online quote and ordering process, please visit www.bestpcbs.com

PCB Stack-up Parameter

Internal Copper Thickness After Processing

Base Foil	Min. After Processing
18um (1/2oz)	11.4um
35um (1oz)	24.9um
70um (2oz)	55.7um
105um (3oz)	86.6um
140um (4oz)	117.5um

External Copper Thickness After Plating

Base Foil	Min. Class 2	Min. Class 3
12um (3/8oz)	29.3um	34.3um
18um (1/2oz)	33.4um	38.4um
35um (1oz)	47.9um	52.9um
70um (2oz)	78.7um	83.7um
105um (3oz)	108.6um	113.6um
140um (4oz)	139.5um	144.5um

Common Prepreg (PP) Properties

Type	Thickness (mm)	Resin (%)
106	0.05	65
1080	0.075	65
2116	0.12	55
7628	0.2	46

Common Material List

Medium Tg	Shengyi S1000-H
	ITEQ IT-158
	Elite EMC-825
High Tg	Shengyi S1000-2M
	ITEQ IT-180A
	Elite EMS-827

Common Core Thickness

PCB Stack-up and Impedance Control Guidelines

Design Tips – Stack-up

1. Ensure the stack-up remains symmetric.

2. Typically, a foil build is recommended. Special core builds, like those with Rogers, are possible but less common.

3. For boards thicker than 1mm, the standard thickness tolerance is +/-10%. For 1mm boards, the standard tolerance is +/-0.1mm. Any board with a thickness ≤1mm requires approval from Best Tech.

4. The minimum dielectric thickness will be 90µm, according to IPC standards, unless otherwise specified by the FAB drawing and there are no micro vias.

5. Use a maximum of three sheets of prepreg to bond the layers.

6. While the stack-up used in production may differ slightly from the specified one, an Engineering Query (EQ) will be sent for confirmation.

7. Variations can occur due to factors like copper distribution and available materials.

8. Thicker copper foils require thicker dielectrics between layers, and the foil thickness after processing differs from the base foil thickness.

9. Additionally, variations in resin percentage for the same prepreg type can impact the final prepreg thickness.

10. When incorporating micro vias, consider the aspect ratio—recommended at 0.8:1 and advanced at 1:1—when selecting prepreg.

If you need special materials, thickness tolerances, or stack-ups, contact Best Technology for guidance. Below are some suggested stack-ups for different layers PCB.

Impedance Parameters Needed for Calculation

Symbol	Feature
H1, H2, H3..	Dielectric thickness between copper layers after pressing
Er1	Dielectric constant of prepreg or core used between copper layers.
W1	The bottom width od impedance lines, which is the customer required impedance trace width.
W2	The top width of impedance lines.
S1	The space between two differential impedance traces.
T1	Finished copper thickness, which is different with our normal definition.
C1	Solder mask thickness on material.
C2	Solder mask thickness on copper.
C3	Solder mask thickness on material between traces (C1 = C3).
CEr	Dielectric constant of solder mask. Normally use 3.4 to calculate.

Tolerance of Impedance Control

Type of Impedance	Common Requested Value	Tolerance of Impedance Control
Type of Impedance	Common Requested Value	General	Moderate	Advanced
Single/Single Coplanar	40Ω/510Ω/75Ω	+/-10%	+/-8%	+/-5%
Differential/Differential Coplanar	90Ω/100Ω/120Ω	+/-10%	+/-8%	+/-5%

Relationship between Parameters and Impedance Value

Parameters Modification		Effect on Impedance Value
Parameters	Increase/Reduce	Impacts on impedance	Impedance value increase/reduced
H (dielectric thickness)	Increase	Big	Increase
W (trace width)	Increase	Big	Reduced
S (trace space)	Increase	Big	Increase
T (copper thickness)	Increase	Low	Reduced
C (solder mask thickness)	Increase	Low	Reduced

Design tips – Impedance

When signal speeds exceed 2 GHz and timing is critical, consider using better materials such as medium, high, or ultra-high-speed options, along with flat glass styles. To ensure a reliable lamination process and prevent resin starvation, allow the factory to select the number of prepregs, prepreg styles, and resin content in the stack-up.

Key factors influencing impedance signal losses include:

1. Line Length: Signal losses are directly proportional to the line length—shorter lines result in fewer losses, while longer lines lead to greater losses.

2. Dielectric Loss: These losses can be minimized by selecting appropriate materials.

3. Copper Loss: This includes losses from the cross-sectional area (affected by stack-up design) and surface roughness, which can be reduced through material selection and proper stack-up configuration.

If you require impedance tolerances tighter than +/-10%, discuss your design possibilities with the Best Technology team.

When designing rigid-flex boards, note that separate calculations are necessary for both the rigid and flex sections of the same signal. Manufacturers will adjust the thickness and dielectric constant of the solder mask based on their solder mask properties and printing method. Variations in resin content for the same prepreg type can also affect impedance. For assistance with impedance calculations, contact Best Technology for support.

Checklist of Necessary Information for Impedance Calculations

1. Specify the type, value, and tolerance of impedance control.

2. Ensure you define the width and space of impedance traces, as well as the layers where these traces will be present, along with the layers to be considered as reference points.

3. Identify the type of material and final board thickness, and provide a reference stack-up for the design.

4. Confirm the finished copper thickness on external and internal layers, and note if any special type of solder mask is required.

5. Always request Best Technology’s stack-up before starting the routing design.

What Are the Three Types of Power Supply?

There are three subsets of regulated power supplies: linear, switched, and uninterruptible battery based. Of the three basic regulated power supply designs, linear is the least complicated system, but switched and battery power have their advantages.

Linear power supply

This is one of the simplest forms. It uses a transformer to reduce the input voltage to the desired level, then relies on a regulator to maintain stable voltage. Linear power supplies are known for their low noise output and reliability. However, they can be inefficient because they dissipate excess energy as heat.

Switching power supply

This type is much more efficient than linear power supplies. It rapidly switches the power on and off to control the output voltage. By doing so, switching power supplies can achieve higher efficiencies, making them ideal for modern electronics where energy conservation is crucial. They are compact and offer better energy savings but can introduce noise into the circuit.

Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

A UPS provides emergency power when the main source fails. It’s widely used in environments where power interruptions could cause data loss or equipment damage, such as in data centers or hospitals. It combines elements of both linear and switching power supplies, offering reliability and backup in case of failure.

What Are the Problems with Power Supply Circuits?

Power supply circuits are not without challenges, but understanding these issues can help mitigate them.

Heat generation

Some power supplies, especially linear ones, generate significant heat during operation. This can affect the longevity of components and the overall performance of the device. Adding heat sinks or better cooling can help manage this issue.

Voltage fluctuations

Inconsistent power supply can lead to voltage drops or spikes. Sensitive electronics might malfunction or get damaged under such conditions. Proper filtering and regulation can address these fluctuations.

Electrical noise

Switch-mode power supplies are efficient but can introduce electrical noise into the circuit. This noise can interfere with the performance of other components, especially in sensitive applications. Careful circuit design, shielding, and grounding can reduce the impact.

Common Power Supply Circuit Diagram

A diagram representing circuit connections with circuit component symbols is called a circuit diagram. Circuit diagram is a kind of schematic layout diagram that represents the composition and relationship of components and devices drawn by the symbols of physical and electrical standardization for the needs of research and engineering planning, which can know the working principle of components and provide planning schemes for the analysis of performance and installation of electronic and electrical products.

Circuit diagram is one of the basic skills that electronic engineers must learn, here we listing four common power supply circuit diagrams, which is super full super detailed. Hope it is useful for you!

Regulated Power Supply Circuit Diagram

This type uses voltage regulators to maintain a constant output voltage regardless of input fluctuations. Let’s take an example of an 3～25V adjustable voltage regulator circuit. This regulated power supply can be adjusted within a range of 3.5V to 25V. It provides a large output current and uses an adjustable voltage regulator circuit. You can see its circuit diagram as below:

Its working principle is: after rectification and filtering, the DC voltage is supplied to the base of the adjustment transistor through R1, which makes the transistor conduct. When V1 conducts, the voltage passes through RP and R2 to make V2 conduct, and then V3 also conducts. At this point, the emitter and collector voltages of V1, V2, and V3 no longer change (their function is completely similar to that of a zener diode). By adjusting RP, a stable output voltage can be obtained. The ratio of R1, RP, R2, and R3 determines the output voltage of this circuit.

Component Selection

Transformer T: Choose an 80W to 100W transformer, with an input of AC220V and a dual winding output of AC28V.

FU1: Use a 1A fuse.

FU2: Use a 3A to 5A fuse.

VD1, VD2: Use 6A02 diodes.

RP: Use an ordinary potentiometer rated at around 1W, with a resistance value between 250K and 330K.

C1: Use a 3300µF/35V electrolytic capacitor.

C2, C3: Use 0.1µF monolithic capacitors.

C4: Use a 470µF/35V electrolytic capacitor.

R1: Use a resistor with a value between 180Ω and 220Ω, rated at 0.1W to 1W.

R2, R4, R5: Use 10KΩ resistors, rated at 1/8W.

V1: Use a 2N3055 transistor.

V2: Use a 3DG180 or 2SC3953 transistor.

V3: Use a 3CG12 or 3CG80 transistor.

Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) Circuit

This circuit is used in many modern electronics because of its high efficiency. It includes a switching regulator that controls the energy flow, converting the input voltage to the required output through rapid switching. Below is a power supply circuit diagram of a 12V, 20W SMPS system with TOP224P.

From the above, VDz1 and VD1 clamp the spike voltage generated by leakage inductance to a safe level and attenuate ringing voltage. VDz1 uses a P6KE200 transient voltage suppressor with a reverse breakdown voltage of 200V, while VD1 is a UF4005 ultra-fast recovery diode rated at 1A/600V. The secondary winding voltage is rectified and filtered through VD1, C2, L1, and C3, producing a 12V output voltage (Uo). The value of Uo is determined by the sum of the stable voltage of VDz2, the forward voltage drop across the LED in the optocoupler, and the voltage drop across R1.

By adjusting the turns ratio of the high-frequency transformer and the stabilization value of VDz2, other output voltages can also be obtained. R2 and VDz2 provide a dummy load for the 12V output, improving load regulation during light load conditions. The feedback winding voltage is rectified and filtered by VD3 and C4 to supply the necessary bias to the TOP224P. Common mode choke L2 reduces common-mode leakage current caused by the high-voltage switching waveform on the primary winding’s D-terminal. C7 filters interference from the coupling capacitance between the primary and secondary windings, while C6 minimizes differential-mode leakage currents from the primary winding. Additionally, C5 filters peak current on the control terminal and, together with R1 and R3, compensates the control loop and determines the self-starting frequency.

Transformer-Based Power Supply Circuit

This is the most basic power supply circuit, often used in low-power applications. It involves a transformer to reduce the input AC voltage, followed by rectification and filtering to produce a steady DC output.

Battery-Powered Circuit

For portable devices, battery-powered circuits offer a reliable power source. These circuits are designed to manage the charging and discharging of batteries while providing stable power to the device.

Which kind of PCB used for power supply circuit?

1. Heavy copper PCB

Heavy copper PCBs are designed with significantly thicker copper layers compared to standard PCBs. Typically, they feature copper weights greater than 3 ounces per square foot. These PCBs excel in handling higher currents and distributing power across the circuit more effectively, making them ideal for power distribution systems, power converters, and other demanding applications. Bus bar PCBs are a subtype of heavy copper boards, specifically designed for applications requiring high current capacity and low impedance.

Heavy copper PCBs are used when standard copper traces cannot carry the required current without excessive heat buildup. By increasing the thickness of the copper layers, these PCBs can manage higher currents, dissipate heat better, and enhance the board’s durability. They are crucial in industries like automotive, solar power, and industrial control, where reliable power management is key.

2. Metal Core PCB

Metal core PCBs also call led pcb board, are built with a metal substrate, typically aluminum or copper, to efficiently dissipate heat generated by high-power circuits. These boards are widely used in LED lighting, power supplies, and automotive electronics where heat management is essential. For extra high power supply applications, copper core PCB is a good choice.

3. Ceramic PCB

Ceramic PCBs are highly favored in environments where high thermal conductivity and electrical insulation are needed. They can be used under -80C ~ 2200C. They perform well in high-frequency applications and can operate in harsh conditions, making them suitable for aerospace, military, and industrial power electronics.

How to Build a 12V Power Supply Circuit?

Building a 12V power supply circuit can be a rewarding project, whether you’re creating it for a specific device or learning about electronics. Below is a detailed guide to help you design and build a reliable 12V power supply.

Components Needed

Before you begin, gather the essential components:

Transformer: A step-down transformer will reduce the AC mains voltage (usually 110V or 220V) to a lower AC voltage that can be rectified and regulated to 12V DC. A common choice is a transformer that outputs 15V AC.
Bridge Rectifier: This consists of four diodes arranged to convert AC to DC. The diodes ensure that the output is always in the same polarity, transforming the alternating current into a pulsating direct current.
Capacitors: Capacitors act as filters to smooth out the pulsating DC output from the rectifier, reducing ripple and providing a more stable DC voltage.
12V Voltage Regulator: A voltage regulator like the LM7812 ensures that the output remains at a steady 12V DC. This is crucial to prevent voltage fluctuations, which could damage sensitive electronic components.
Heat Sink: A heat sink is necessary to dissipate heat from the voltage regulator, especially when there’s a significant voltage drop between the input and the 12V output.
Fuse: To protect your circuit from overcurrent situations, a fuse should be added at the input or output stage.
Optional Components: You might include an LED indicator and resistor to show when the power supply is active.

Step-by-Step Process

Here’s how to assemble the components into a functional 12V power supply circuit:

Step 1: Connect the Transformer

The transformer’s primary winding is connected to the AC mains, reducing the input voltage to around 15V AC on the secondary winding. This step-down AC voltage will feed into the rectifier circuit.

Step 2: Bridge Rectifier Configuration

The output of the transformer is connected to the bridge rectifier. The rectifier converts the AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage. The output voltage will still have ripples (fluctuations in the voltage level) and needs further smoothing.

Step 3: Filter the Output with Capacitors

A capacitor is connected across the output of the bridge rectifier to smooth the pulsating DC signal. This helps to reduce ripple and stabilize the voltage. A larger capacitor will give better smoothing, but a typical value used is around 1000µF. The capacitor works by charging up during the peaks of the rectified signal and releasing energy during the valleys, leading to a more stable DC voltage.

Step 4: Voltage Regulation

After the rectified and filtered voltage, you will likely have a DC voltage around 15V, which is still too high for a 12V power supply. This is where the 12V voltage regulator (e.g., LM7812) comes into play. The regulator ensures the output remains at a constant 12V, regardless of input variations or load changes.

1. Connect the input pin of the regulator to the positive output of the rectifier.

2. Connect the ground pin to the common ground.

3. The output pin will now deliver a regulated 12V DC.

Step 5: Add the Heat Sink

Voltage regulators can generate significant heat, especially when the difference between the input and output voltage is large. Attach a heat sink to the regulator to prevent overheating and ensure stable operation.

Step 6: Safety Measures

To protect the circuit from potential damage, include a fuse on the input side. This fuse will blow if there’s a short circuit or an overload, preventing the transformer or other components from getting damaged. For example, you can use a 1A fuse.

Step 7: Test the Circuit

Once the circuit is assembled, double-check all connections and test the output with a multimeter. Make sure the output voltage is stable at 12V under no load and when powering a device.

Optional: Add Features

You can add an LED indicator with a series resistor to the output side. This will visually indicate when the power supply is on and functioning.

Practical Considerations

Load Capacity: The transformer’s power rating (VA) should be sufficient to handle the current drawn by the load. For instance, if your load requires 1A at 12V, the transformer must be able to supply at least 12 watts (plus some margin to account for inefficiency and losses).

Heat Management: If your power supply will be operating under heavy load, consider adding active cooling, such as a small fan, especially if the heat sink alone does not adequately dissipate heat.

Enclosure: For safety and aesthetics, house the power supply in an insulated, vented enclosure to prevent accidental contact with live wires and to allow for heat dissipation.

A Simple Example

Once completed, this 12V power supply circuit can be used for a wide variety of applications:

Small Electronics Projects: Power up microcontrollers, sensors, or other small electronics that run on 12V.

LED Lighting: It can be used to power 12V LED strips or other lighting systems.

Arduino or Raspberry Pi Projects: Many DIY electronics projects require a steady 12V supply to operate correctly, and this circuit can deliver that power reliably.

PCB Line Width and Flow Current Comparison Table Chart

PCB Line Width and Flow Current Comparison Table Chart
Line width (mm)	Current (A)	Line width (mm)	Current (A)	Line width (mm)	Current (A)
0.15	0.2	0.15	0.5	0.15	0.7
0.2	0.55	0.2	0.7	0.2	0.9
0.3	0.8	0.3	1.1	0.3	1.3
0.4	1.1	0.1	1.35	0.4	1.7
0.5	1.35	0.5	1.7	0.5	2.0
0.6	1.6	0.6	1.9	0.6	2.3
0.8	2.0	0.8	2.4	0.8	2.8
1.0	2.3	1.0	2.6	1.0	3.2
1.2	2.7	1.2	3.0	1.2	3.6
1.5	3.2	1.5	3.5	1.5	4.2
2.0	4.0	2.0	4.3	2.0	5.1
2.5	4.5	2.5	5.1	2.5	6.0
Copper thickness 1OZ (0.035mm)		Copper thickness 1.5OZ (0.05mm)		Copper thickness 2OZ (0.7mm)

From the chart as above:

35um copper thickness and 0.4mm line width, the current is 1.1A;

50um copper thickness and 0.4mm line width, the current is 1.35A;

70um copper thickness and 0.4mm line width, the current is 1.7A.

Best Technology PCB Line Width and Flow Current Calculator

When using copper foil as a conductor for large currents, the width of the copper foil should be selected by reducing the current-carrying capacity values from the reference table by 50%. However, there are other methods to address this. In some power circuits, due to PCB constraints, the current-carrying paths are designed as long pads, and solder is added on top of them to form a thick current path. Besides adding tin to the copper foil to increase the current capacity, you can also consider using multiple PCB layers to increase the current. For instance, placing the same circuit on both the top and bottom layers or using short jumper wires can also help increase the current capacity.

How Wide Should the Trace be If Current is 1A?

1. Due to the limited thickness of the copper foil on the copper-clad board, the current-carrying capacity of the copper foil needs to be considered for strip-shaped copper foil that needs to carry a large current. Taking the typical thickness of 0.03mm as an example, if the copper foil is used as a strip-shaped conductor with a width of W (mm) and a length of L (mm), its resistance is 0.0005 L / W ohms. Additionally, the current-carrying capacity of the copper foil is related to the types of components installed on the PCB, their quantity, and the heat dissipation conditions. Under safe conditions, the current-carrying capacity can generally be calculated using the empirical formula: 0.15 W (A).

2. The calculation method is as follows: First, calculate the cross-sectional area of the track. Most PCBs have a copper foil thickness of 35μm (if unsure, you can ask the PCB manufacturer). Multiply this by the trace width to get the cross-sectional area, making sure to convert to square millimeters. There’s an empirical value for current density, which is 15-25 amperes per square millimeter. Multiply this by the cross-sectional area to get the current capacity.

3. I = K T^0.44 A^0.75, where K is a correction factor (0.024 for internal copper traces, 0.048 for external copper traces), T is the maximum temperature rise in degrees Celsius (copper’s melting point is 1060°C), A is the copper cross-sectional area in square mils (not square millimeters, so be mindful of the conversion), and I is the allowable maximum current in amperes (amps). Typically, 10 mil = 0.010 inches = 0.254 mm, which can carry 1A. Therefore, 250 mil = 6.35 mm can carry 8.3A.

4. The calculation of PCB current-carrying capacity has long lacked authoritative technical methods and formulas. Experienced CAD engineers can make accurate judgments based on personal experience. However, for CAD novices, this can be quite a challenge.

5. PCB current-carrying capacity depends on the following factors: trace width, trace thickness (copper foil thickness), and allowable temperature rise. As we all know, the wider the PCB trace, the greater the current-carrying capacity. Under the same conditions, a 10mil trace can carry 1A, but can a 50mil trace carry 5A? The answer is, of course, no.

Current-Carrying Capacity of External PCB Traces (1mil = 0.0254mm)

Line length – current carrying data chart (unit: A)

Line width (mil)	Line length 5cm	Line length 10cm	Line length 15cm	Line length 20cm	Line length 25cm	Line length 30cm	Line length 35cm	Line length 40cm
4	0.403	0.201.	0.134	0.101	0.081	0.067	0.058	0.050
6	0.604	0.302	0.201	0.151	0.121	0.101	0.086	0.075
8	0.753	0.403	0.268	0.201	0.161	0.134	0.115	0.101
10	0.886	0.503	0.336	0.252	0.201	0.168	0.144	0.126
12	1.011	0.604	0.403	0.302	0.242	0.201	0.173	0.151
16	1.245	0.805	0.537	0.403	0.322	0.268	0.230	0.201
20	1.464	1.007	0.671	0.503	0.403	0.336	0.288	0.252
30	1.964	1.510	1.007	0.755	0.604	0.503	0.431	0.378
40	2.419	2.013	1.342	1.007	0.805	0.671	0.575	0.501
50	2.844	2.517	1.678	1.258	1.007	0.839	0.719	0.629
60	3.246	3.020	2.013	1.510	1.208	1.007	0.862	0.755
80	3.999	3.999	2.684	2.013	1.611	1.342	1.150	1.007
100	4.701	4.701	3.356	2.517	2.013	1.678	1.438	1.258
120	5.365	5.365	4.027	3.020	2.413	2.013	1.726	1.510
160	6.610	6.610	5.369	4.027	3.221	2.684	2.301	2.013
200	7.770	7.770	6.711	5.033	4.027	3.355	2.876	2.517
240	8.868	8.868	8.053	6.040	4.832	4.027	3.451	3.020
280	9.917	9.917	9.395	7.047	5.637	4.698	4.027	3.523
320	10.925	10.925	10.738	8.053	6.443	5.369	4.602	4.027
360	11.899	11.899	11.899	9.060	7.248	6.040	5.177	4.530
400	12.844	12.844	12.844	10.067	8.053	6.711	5.752	5.033

For low-frequency, low-current PCB designs, the general trace width is around 10 mil, and for more compact designs, 6 mil may be used. The key factor in determining PCB trace width is the current: higher currents require wider traces, while lower currents can use narrower traces. The operating frequency also plays a role in determining the width.

Ideally, the width of the PCB power trace should be at least 40 mil, with a minimum of 25 mil when conditions allow. Always opt for the widest trace possible to accommodate the current.
Consider the actual current flow. Typically, a 10 mil trace can carry a maximum of 1A, so adjust the width according to the current requirements.
The ground trace should be wider than the V+ trace and should surround the V+ trace to reduce interference and power ripple.
When converted to millimeters, the positive power trace should be no less than 0.6mm wide, while the negative power trace should be wider than the positive trace and surround it.

How Are Multilayer Boards Constructed?

The multi-layer board is composed of several single sided PCB for the outer layer and some double-sided PCBs for the inner layer.

l Single-Sided Boards

In the most basic PCB design, components are placed on one side of the board, and the wiring is on the other. This is called a single-sided board. Due to strict routing limitations (since traces cannot cross each other), single-sided boards are mostly used in simpler circuits.

l Double-Sided Boards

Double-sided boards have wiring on both sides. To connect the circuits on both sides, vias (small holes filled or coated with metal) are used. The larger area and ability to route traces through both sides make double-sided boards more suitable for complex circuits compared to single-sided boards.

l Multilayer Boards

To increase routing space, multilayer boards are created by combining multiple layers of single-sided or double-sided boards. For example, a four-layer or six-layer PCB might consist of a double-sided board as the core with single-sided boards on either side, all bonded together. Multilayer boards allow more complex designs, and while most modern PCBs use between 4 to 8 layers, designs with up to 100 layers are possible for advanced computing needs, though they are increasingly rare due to advances in other technologies.

The number of layers doesn’t always indicate the number of wiring layers—some layers may be added purely to adjust board thickness. Most motherboard designs consist of 4 to 8 layers, and while extremely complex multilayer boards were once used in supercomputers, they are now often replaced by clusters of standard machines.

Trace Width and Copper Pour Guidelines

When designing PCBs, a general rule is to use thicker traces for high-current areas (e.g., 50 mil or more) and thinner traces for low-current signals (e.g., 10 mil). In some electromechanical control systems, the instantaneous current through a trace can exceed 100A, in which case thin traces would fail.

An empirical rule of thumb is that 10A can safely pass through 1 square millimeter of trace cross-section. If the trace is too thin, it may burn out under high current. This phenomenon follows the energy equation: Q = I^2*t. For example, a trace designed for 10A can likely handle a sudden current spike of 100A for microseconds, but beyond that, other factors like stray inductance in the trace could generate strong counter-electromotive forces, potentially damaging other components. Longer and thinner traces have higher stray inductance, so their length must also be considered.

Copper Pouring on Vias and Pads

Most PCB design software offers options for how to connect vias or pads to copper planes, such as direct pour, orthogonal spokes, or 45-degree angled spokes. While many designers select based on aesthetics, these choices affect both current capacity and heat dissipation.

l Direct Pour: This method provides the strongest current-carrying capacity for pads or vias, making it ideal for high-power circuits. However, direct pours also enhance heat conduction, which, while beneficial for cooling components, can complicate soldering by rapidly dissipating heat, requiring higher soldering temperatures and larger soldering irons, which may reduce production efficiency.

l Orthogonal and 45-Degree Spokes: These methods reduce the contact area between the pad or via and the copper, slowing heat dissipation and making soldering easier. For low-power signal traces, orthogonal or 45-degree spokes are recommended, while direct pour is necessary for pads carrying high currents. The choice between orthogonal and 45-degree spokes is mainly aesthetic.

What is a Drone Circuit Board?

A drone circuit board refers to the electronic component board installed in a drone that controls and manages its various functions. It serves as the core control system of the drone, similar to how a brain functions in the human body. The drone circuit board controls all operations, including flight, photography, and video recording. It is the central system that coordinates all activities.

Depending on different functions and application scenarios, drone circuit boards can be classified into various types, such as flight control boards, video transmission boards, and power control boards. Among these, the flight control board can be considered a type of drone circuit board but is not equivalent to it. The flight control board mainly controls parameters such as flight direction, altitude, and speed, and adjusts the drone’s posture to ensure stable flight. The drone circuit board, however, not only controls flight but can also implement auxiliary functions such as GPS positioning and image transmission.

What Board is Used in Drones?

In drone design, the two most common types of circuit boards are rigid-flex boards and traditional PCB boards. Rigid-Flex PCB is a hybrid type of PCB that combines rigid and flexible circuit boards. It allows the board to bend and fold in tight spaces, which is particularly useful for compact drones that require a highly integrated design. Moreover, rigid-flex boards are lightweight and thin, which is advantageous for drone designers looking to enhance flight time and stability.

Traditional PCB Boards are another common type of circuit board used in drone design. These boards have strong mechanical strength, making them suitable for the core control units in drones, such as flight control boards and ESC boards (Electronic Speed Controllers).

Below are the main types of circuit boards commonly found in drones:

Control Circuit Board

The control circuit board is one of the most important boards in a drone. It typically consists of the main control chip, sensors, and electronic speed controllers (ESC). The main control chip acts as the brain of the drone, receiving wireless signals and controlling the flight posture and movement based on user commands. Sensors can detect the drone’s position and motion in real-time, ensuring stable flight control. The ESC adjusts the motor speed and direction, which directly impacts the drone’s flight.

Power Supply Circuit Board

The power supply circuit board is responsible for providing power to the drone, ensuring proper voltage and current. It must prevent issues like overcurrent, overvoltage, and overheating to maintain the drone’s performance.

Navigation Circuit Board

The navigation circuit board determines the drone’s position and direction, with the GPS module as the core component. GPS helps obtain satellite signals, calculating important information such as latitude, longitude, and altitude, to ensure precise navigation and positioning. The board may also include other sensors like barometers, gyroscopes, and accelerometers to enhance navigation accuracy.

Communication Circuit Board

The communication circuit board typically includes WiFi, Bluetooth, and 4G/5G modules, which allow the drone to connect with ground control stations or user devices for data transmission, remote control operations, and video streaming.

Why Use a Drone Circuit Board?

Besides the central chip, drone circuit boards serve many critical functions, such as power management and signal transmission. Let’s take a closer look at their functionality:

Power Management

The power management chip on a drone circuit board controls and regulates the power supply. Unlike regular circuit boards, the power management module in drones must be efficient, low-power, and lightweight. Since drones often need to fly for hours, improper design of the power management module can severely impact flight time and energy utilization.

Collecting data

The sensor chip on the drone circuit board is responsible for collecting data, such as GPS location, barometric pressure, and posture. The sensor chip processes data from wireless sensors and transmits it to the control chip for decision-making.

Control the drone

The control chip is the most vital part of the drone circuit board, managing and coordinating all aspects of the drone’s operation, including GPS navigation, servos, and motors. The microprocessor in the control chip uses algorithms to control flight while processing real-time sensor data.

Data Transmission

When capturing aerial photos or videos, the drone needs to send the recorded data to ground devices. The data transmission chip on the drone circuit board ensures that this information is transmitted to ground equipment. Many drones also support wireless network connections for seamless communication.

How to Make a Drone PCB?

To make a drone PCB, you’ll need to prepare the following materials:

STM32F405RGT6 microcontroller, which is stable and suitable for various drone applications.
2.4G CC2500 wireless module based on the UART protocol for data communication with the remote control.
Sensors like accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, barometers, GPS, etc., to provide sensor fusion for precise drone control.
Power Module
Other components including resistors, capacitors, diodes, voltage regulators, and other basic circuit components.

Here is the way to create the drone PCB step by step:

1. Design

You can use PCB software to design the schematic and PCB layout, determining key parameters like circuit connections and component placement.

2. Printing and Etching

Print the designed circuit board pattern onto transparent stickers and attach them to copper sheets. After etching and removing the stickers, the circuit board will be ready.

3. Soldering

Solder the components onto the circuit board. It’s essential to leave adequate pads for soldering during the design phase.

4. Testing

Test the soldered circuit board to ensure normal functioning of the circuits.

What Should We Consider When Designing a Drone PCB?

Make sure enough power, ground, and data lines are allocated to each component to avoid signal interference and noise.

Take measures to protect components from static electricity during soldering.

Write clear and standardized comments in your program for easier modifications and debugging later.

Double-check that the board’s connections are in the correct order to prevent damage to the control board.

Is a Fuse Board the Same As a Distribution Board?

No, a fuse board and a distribution board serve different purposes in a drone’s electrical system.

Fuse board is designed to protect your components from power surges or short circuits. It contains fuses that blow if too much current flows through them, cutting off power to prevent damage.

Distribution board is simply distributes power from the battery to different components of the drone, such as the ESCs and flight controller. It doesn’t have the protective features of a fuse board.

In some designs, both can be combined into one board, but their functions remain distinct.

How can I Increase my Drone Power?

Increasing your drone’s power can improve performance, allowing it to carry more weight or fly faster. You can use below ways to increase the power:

Upgrade motors

Increase battery capacity

Use better propellers

Optimize power distribution

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